This transnational study compares Catholic Spain and Protestant England as two countries that adopted opposing views on religious images in the early modern period. The Reformation questioned the value of and justification for the use of representations of Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints found in medieval Catholic churches. This investigation focuses on how and why ideas about images written mostly by clergymen played themselves out differently in each country. The interaction of doctrine, official policy, audience, and practice is central to this analysis as it reveals the character of the religious culture of each country.

This analysis argues that unlike Trent that considered the doctrine of images as non-essential, the Church of England viewed images as a key component of their fight against Catholicism because images symbolized all the external and ceremonial aspects that had to be reformed. Spanish Catholic writers showed their concern for possible misuse and the need to clarify this doctrine to the laity. While it is clear that the Spanish policy toward censorship to a great extent halted any debates with Protestants, the English Protestants, who did not face those limitations, chose not to debate directly with authors from other countries. The discussion about images reveals an essential difference in the religious cultures of Catholic Spain and Protestant England. While in England more complex discussions targeted a lay religious culture that was accustomed to reading and discussing a great deal of religious subjects, in Spain the writings on images were directed mainly at a clergy who, in turn, had to instruct the laity on the meaning and proper use of images.

In Spain, confusion concerning the significance and role of images stemmed from the lack of clarity and detail in the decrees of the Council of Trent. It is likely that the Catholic Church only focused on explaining the areas of doctrine that were essential for salvation: the use of images was encouraged but not required. Despite the secondary importance of the doctrine of images in the eyes of the fathers of Trent, they seemed concerned by misuse. Spanish authors might have observed misuse of images, and thus they felt the need to clarify the doctrine of images to their readers to fill the vacuum left by Trent. The Spanish Church actively dealt with abuse and misuse of images through the Inquisition and archbishoprics. Most Spanish Catholic authors adopted a more conservative stance than Trent and seemed to emphasize the importance of understanding devotional practices. Occasionally, a few authors were explicit about the possible dangers of images and disagreed with traditional Church views. The program of censorship discouraged the clergy to debate controversial doctrine with the laity and to engage in direct confrontations with Protestants. While there were debates over predestination and the Immaculate Conception, no direct discussion about images took place because they were part of a doctrine of marginal significance.

The Church of England offered a detailed doctrine of general principles without seeking to unify ideas. Images had been destroyed in the early years of the Elizabethan period, and thus divergence of ideas about them was allowed in order to facilitate the progress of reform. From this freedom of thought, a few views revealing toleration towards images emerged. The bans on publication focused on Catholics and Protestants were allowed to debate with their Catholic counterparts who were in exile. Eventually the rise to power of a group of high clergymen with an Arminian outlook during the reign of Charles I established a tacit new era of toleration of images, making illegal the works of Puritans who decried the return of symbols of Catholicism. The writings of English Catholics in exile demonstrate the different strategies used to advance their agendas in exile without openly criticizing the Queen. To their dual audiences of English Catholic and Protestants, these authors presented themselves as reformed Catholics with a conception of images different from the medieval church.