The purpose of this study was to examine the influences of gender, parenthood, and frequency of spiritual experiences on levels of depressive symptoms. This study focused specifically on the extent to which the relationship between the frequency of spiritual experiences and levels of depressive symptoms was moderated by parenthood status and gender, adjusting for key potentially confounding demographic variables of age, education, race, religion, income, marital status, occupational status, as well as the presence/absence of perceived emotional support, presence/absence of a confidant and survey type. The sample consisted of 409 English-speaking respondents who answered questions from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) and the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (DSES) in the internet and paper versions of a survey study. The participants ranged in age from 20 to 86 years, and represented a wide range of demographic variations.

The hypotheses tested relationships between gender, parenthood and frequency of spiritual experiences and levels of depressive symptoms. The findings of greatest significance indicated that (1) parenthood was associated with higher frequencies of spiritual experience; (2) parenthood status and higher frequencies of spiritual experience were associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms, and (3) there was a gender difference in the protective influence of higher frequencies of spiritual experiences in interaction with parenthood status as they related to levels of depressive symptoms, this influence existing only for the fathers but not for the mothers in this study. Specifically, a significant two-way interaction indicated that parents with higher frequencies of spiritual experience reported lower levels of depressive symptoms than parents with lower frequencies of spiritual experience. However, a significant three-way interaction showed that higher frequencies of spiritual experience were a significant predictor of levels of depressive symptoms only for male parents.

This study highlights the protective influence of high frequencies of spiritual experience against levels of depressive symptoms in fathers. It also suggests that there is a potential for higher levels of depressive symptoms in non-fathers with high frequencies of spiritual experiences. As the results were not significant for the women, this study emphasizes the importance of viewing the influences of parenthood and frequency of spiritual experiences on levels of depressive symptoms through a gendered lens. Above all, this study underscores the important ameliorative association between high frequencies of spiritual experiences and levels of depressive symptoms in fathers.