This dissertation is about a medieval literary trope—personification—and about the fate of that trope in early modernity. The background of the project is the twilight of the personifications, in English poetry, from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth; its foreground, four allegorical texts of this period: William Langland's Piers Plowman, John Skelton's The Bowge of Courte, Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, and John Bunyan's The Pilgrim 's Progress.

The project's most basic observations are that personification belongs to a universe of spiritual presences, that it dies with the coming of modernity, and that the period from Langland to Bunyan is in many ways the trope's season of decadence. But this period of convulsion and decay also finds the old trope emerging in new garb, hot with unanticipated energy and fraught with complex tensions. The personifications of this period manifest themselves as demonic principalities infecting a human world, as alien phantasms within a hallucinating consciousness, as mutable bodies striving toward immutability: in every instance, as presences out of place.

Behind this new garb is a collapse of referentiality. If medieval personification expresses a model of the cosmos (one in which ideas find embodiment as daemonic presences and in which every presence, in turn, gestures toward a universal order of ideas), and if this model fuels the development of a porous model of human selfhood (one that imagines the soul in commerce with the presences and meanings of the universal order), early modernity sees these old models breaking down under the pressure of a selfhood that buffers the soul from commerce with exogenous forces. The spiritual presences of medieval poetry begin retreating into the mind, and the personifications undergo a metamorphosis from the goddesses of the old order to the abstractions of the new. In this metamorphosis they become a remarkably sensitive instrument for probing the widening rifts between the mutable and the immutable, between material bodies and immaterial meanings, between human consciousness and the inhuman forces that confront it; and they thus become the harbingers of a disenchanted world in which their own existence will no longer be tolerable.